Magic into Myth: Avalon, Mystical Isle of Medieval Arthurian Literature

Ancient Origins

The Isle of Apples, Isle of the Blessed, and the Otherworld. These titles have long been associated with the magical resting place of the early medieval king, Arthur Pendragon. A realm imbued with magic, mystery and mysticism, Avalon is as much a metaphor as a true metaphysical realm.

 Its existence and the essence of Avalon had therefore varied from author to author. What was Avalon's role in medieval literature, then? Was it magical or metaphorical? Was it both? Was it entirely unrelated to Arthur? Well, the last question is evidently answered with a resounding "NO"; but is there a question about Avalon that can be answered with a resounding "yes"? This work will examine the ways in which Avalon was depicted in medieval literature, how it was altered over time, and some of the literary and historical implications of the site's supposed mysticism.

An artist’s interpretation of Avalon. (Iribel/Deviant Art)

Avalon is Discussed More than Visited
Avalon has long been a staple of the literature of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. From it stems the majority of the magic that encompasses fairy-tale-esque retellings, and the pagan roots of the British world prior to the rise of Christianity under King Arthur’s reign.

In Avalon, the dreaded Morgan le Fay was taught the magic of the ancients, eventually using this magic to bring about the fall of King Arthur and his royal court. The precise name of the enchantress, and her role in Arthur’s story varies between retellings, but the roots of the dark sorceress who influences the court remains the relatively the same. Similarly, magic vs. sword and pagan vs. Christian have been used interchangeably as metaphors.

Morgan le Fay learned ancient magic on Avalon. (Manzanedo/Deviant Art)

Within medieval literature, Avalon appears to be discussed about more than it is seen. It is best remembered as Arthur’s eternal resting place. Literature discusses Avalon as the place from which magic stems, as a realm behind the veil of mists that encompasses the titular lake of the Lady of the Lake.

From Avalon, passed on by the Lady, comes the infamous sword Excalibur, and the intention behind its mystical/pagan origins is not only that it signifies Arthur as the “once and future king”, but also that Arthur has innately been tied to the world of Avalon. The Lady of the Lake, often portrayed as Lancelot’s mother and occasionally Merlin’s lover, has long alternated between being independent of Morgan le Fay and part of her. That is, the roles of the two are as often intertwined—one could even argue they are confused—as not.

Illustration by H.J. Ford for Andrew Lang's Tales of Romance, 1919. "Arthur meets the Lady of the Lake and gets the Sword Excalibur." (Public Domain)

Intertwining Arthur and Avalon
The primary medieval source of the myth of King Arthur comes from Geoffrey of Monmouth, 10th-11th century AD. Geoffrey’s Historia Regum Britanniae appears to have been utilized throughout the medieval period as an initial source for Arthurian legends. Portraying Arthur and his story in a historical fashion, Geoffrey’s history indicates that there likely was a historical Arthur, the details of which have always been scarce.

As such, the tales of Arthur and his knights have varied throughout the centuries, dependent upon the cultural perceptions and perspectives of the era. For example, the French writer Chrétien de Troyes (c. 12th century) emphasizes the more romantic aspects of being a knight under Arthur, and it is from Chrétien and his contemporaries that “courtly love” stems. 15th century Thomas Malory’s rendition Le Morte’ de Arthur provides a more comprehensive overview of Arthur and the Round Table, building upon Geoffrey's and Chrétien’s stories (among others).

Voyage of King Arthur and Morgan Le Fay to the Isle of Avalon, Frank William Warwick Topham (1838-1924). ( Public Domain )

It is widely believed that Geoffrey first mentioned Avalon as a mythical Otherworld, as well as Morgan le Fay as the island’s leader:

Geoffrey also says that Avalon is where Arthur’s sword, Caliburn [an earlier name of Excalibur], was forged, while the Vita Merlini provides another name for the same locations, the Insula Pomorum or Isle of Apples. The Avalon of the Vita is a utopian place where agriculture is self-sustaining and human life is longer, and is inhabited by nine sisters who are enchantresses (Morgan le Fay is the first of these nine).

Rushton, 215.

The taking of Excalibur by John Duncan. (Public Domain)

As Rushton states, Geoffrey of Monmouth called the leader of Avalon Morgan le Fay, and in this role she was often depicted as a powerful enchantress with the interests of Arthur and the survival of paganism in mind. (However when Morgan le Fay is blended with Arthur’s half-sister and the mother of his son, Mordred, her intentions are destructive). She has also been called Vivian or Morgaine, Arthur’s half-sister, and, in some instances—as mentioned above—she is occasionally blended with the character of the Lady of the Lake. (Thus, the reasons for her alternating allegiances in the legends.)

It is not Geoffrey, however, but Gerald of Wales who initially indicates that Avalon was the resting place of Arthur’s death. Writing in the 12-13th centuries, Gerald follows Geoffrey’s general depiction of Avalon, yet he asserts that Arthur dies before his body is taken to Avalon. Geoffrey, on the other hand, appears to imply that Arthur continued his life in Avalon after the fall of his kingdom.

While Gerald is not alone in his perception of the myth—as indicated by later writers of the myth such as 19th century Alfred Tennyson—Geoffrey’s viewpoint was more readily accepted in the medieval period and was subsequently borrowed by 13th century author William of Rennes, who “provides an idyllic description of Avalon, and the further detail that Arthur and a “royal maiden” who heals him and live together as a couple.”

‘The Last Sleep of Arthur in Avalon’ (1881-1898) by Edward Burne-Jones. (Public Domain)

The Debate on Avalon’s Existence
Avalon as a historical place has long been under debate as well. The elusiveness of the understanding of the location in British literature has made it nearly impossible to discern whether there truly was an Avalon or if Geoffrey created it with influences from the native Celtic religion. If Avalon did exist, it is usually attributed to Glastonbury in England, in part due to an island that disappeared sometime before or during the 12th century.

It also fits descriptions of the mythical isle, although—again—it is possible the island was imagined in the image of Glastonbury Tor without the Tor actually being the site. The debate of Avalon’s existence only grew when a pair of rich graves was discovered in Glastonbury near the mythologically-infused Tor, believed to be those of Arthur and his Christian wife Guinevere.

Glastonbury Tor has been linked to Avalon. (R Potticary/ CC BY SA 3.0 )

All in all, it cannot be doubted that Avalon played a powerful role in the expanse of literature surrounding King Arthur and his knights. The time period Arthur likely "lived" might remain hazy (though scholars lean toward the early medieval period of 500-900 AD), but that did not squelch attempts to understand and spread Arthur's historical and mystical tale during the medieval period. That exploration continues to this day, with no particular end in sight.

Yet it appears that the primary purpose Avalon served in medieval literature is to provide divine origins for Arthur's kingship and to connect the worlds of mortals and magic, Christian and pagan, during a tense period of transition.

The stories of Avalon maintain common themes—love, betrayal, and religious dissonance, to put it simply—and all have the same resolution: Arthur spends the last of his days in Avalon, and the pagan world preceding his reign has mostly passed. Therefore, Avalon's lengthy association with magic and old-world religion during the medieval period remains a sensible, though likely metaphorical, assertion.

Artist’s representation of Avalon. (AlexandraVBach/Deviant Art)

Top Image: ‘Avalon finalised.’ Source: cheery-macaroon/Deviant Art

By Riley Winters

The Legendary Origins of Merlin the Magician

Ancient Origins

Most people today have heard of Merlin the Magician, as his name has been popularized over the centuries and his story has been dramatized in numerous novels, films, and television programs. The powerful wizard is depicted with many magical powers, including the power of shapeshifting and is well-known in mythology as a tutor and mentor to the legendary King Arthur, ultimately guiding him towards becoming the king of Camelot. While these general tales are well-known, Merlin’s initial appearances were only somewhat linked to Arthur. It took many decades of adaptations before Merlin became the wizard of Arthurian legend he is known as today.

Merlin the wizard. Credit: Andy / flickr

It is common belief that Merlin was created as a figure for Arthurian legend. While Merlin the Wizard was a very prominent character in the stories of Camelot, that is not where he originated. Writer Geoffrey of Monmouth is credited with creating Merlin in his 1136 AD work, Historia Regum Britanniae – The History of Kings of Britain. While a large portion of Historia Regum Britanniae is a historical account of the former kings of Britain, Merlin was included as a fictional character (although it is likely that Geoffrey intended for readers to believe he was a figure extracted from long-lost ancient texts). Merlin was paradoxical, as he was both the son of the devil and the servant of God.

Merlin was created as a combination of several historical and legendary figures. Geoffrey combined stories of North Brythonic prophet and madman, Myrddin Wyllt, and Romano-British war leader, Ambrosius Aurelianus, to create Merlin Ambrosius. Ambrosius was a figure in Nennius' Historia Brittonum. In Historia Brittonum, British king Vortigern wished to erect a tower, but each time he tried it would collapse before completion. He was told that to prevent this, he would have to first sprinkle the ground beneath the tower with the blood of a child who was born without a father. Ambrosius was thought to have been born without a father, so he was brought before Vortigern. Ambrosius explains to Vortigern that the tower could not be supported upon the foundation because two battling dragons lived beneath, representing the Saxons and the Britons. Ambrosius convinced Vortigern that the tower will only stand with Ambrosius as a leader, and Vortigern gave Ambrosius the tower, which is also the kingdom. Geoffrey retells this story with Merlin as the child born without a father, although he retains the character of Ambrosius.

Illumination of a 15th century manuscript of Historia Regum Britanniae showing king of the Britons Vortigern and Ambros waching the fight between two dragons. (Wikimedia Commons)

In Geoffrey’s version of the story, he includes a long section containing Merlin’s prophecies, along with two other stories, which led to the inclusion of Merlin into Arthurian legend. These include the tale of Merlin creating Stonehenge as the burial location for Ambrosius, and the story of Uther Pendragon sneaking into Tintagel where he father Arthur with Igraine, his enemy’s wife. This was the extent of Geoffrey’s tales of Merlin. Geoffrey does not include any stories of Merlin acting as a tutor to Arthur, which is how Merlin is most well-known today. Geoffery’s character of Merlin quickly became popular, particularly in Wales, and from there the tales were adapted, eventually leading to Merlin’s role as Arthur’s tutor.

A giant helps Merlin build Stonehenge. From a manuscript of the Roman de Brut by Wace (Wikimedia Commons)

 Many years after Geoffrey’s Historia Regum Britanniae, Robert de Boron composed a poem called Merlin. Boron’s Merlin has the same origins as Geoffrey’s creation, but Boron places special emphasis on Merlin’s shapeshifting powers, connection to the Holy Grail, and his jokester personality. Boron also introduces Blaise, Merlin’s master. Boron’s poem was eventually re-written in prose as Estoire de Merlin, which also places much focus upon Merlin’s shapeshifting. Over the years, Merlin was interspersed through the tales of Arthurian legend. Some writings placed much focus upon Merlin as Arthur’s mentor, while others did not mention Merlin at all. In some tales Merlin was viewed as an evil figure who did no good in his life, while in others he was viewed favorably as Arthur’s teacher and mentor.

Merlin reciting his poem in a 13th-century illustration for ‘Merlin’ by Robert de Boron (Wikimedia Commons)

Eventually, from the various tales emerged Merlin’s downfall, at the hands of Niviane (Vivien), the king of Northumberland’s daughter. Arthur convinces Niviane to stay in his castle, under Merlin’s encouragement. Merlin falls in love with Niviane. However, Niviane fears Merlin will use his magical powers to take advantage of her. She swears that she will never fall in love with him, unless he teaches her all of the magic he knows. Merlin agrees. Merlin and Niviane depart to return to Northumberland, when they are called back to assist King Arthur. As they are returning, they stop to stay in a stone chamber, where two lovers once died and were buried together. When Merlin falls asleep, Niviane places him under a spell, and traps him within the stone tomb, where he dies. Merlin had never realized that his desire for Niviane, and his willingness to teach her his magical ways, would eventually lead to his untimely death.

Merlin and Vivien dated 1867 by Gustave Dore (Wikimedia Commons)

From Merlin’s inception through the writings of Geoffrey, the wizard appeared in many subsequent tales, stories, and poems. Today, Merlin is most well-known for being the wizard who tutored and taught the young Arthur, before he grew to become the King of Camelot. It was under Merlin’s counsel that Arthur became the king that he was. While this legend continues on today, it is interesting to see the many variations of Merlin, from an evil wizard, to a shapeshifter, to one who met his downfall from teaching his powers to the woman he loved. This powerful and versatile character caught the attention of many people centuries ago, and continues to play a prominent role in today’s storytelling.

By M R Reese

What Exactly is the Holy Grail – And Why Has its Meaning Eluded us for Centuries?

Ancient Origins

Leah Tether / The Conversation

Leah Tether works at the University of Bristol. She received funding for this research from Anglia Ruskin University, Ghent University, Somerville College, Oxford and the Stationers' Foundation.

Type “Holy Grail” into Google and … well, you probably don’t need me to finish that sentence. The sheer multiplicity of what any search engine throws up demonstrates that there is no clear consensus as to what the Grail is or was. But that doesn’t mean there aren’t plenty of people out there claiming to know its history, true meaning and even where to find it.

Modern authors, perhaps most (in)famously Dan Brown , offer new interpretations and, even when these are clearly and explicitly rooted in little more than imaginative fiction, they get picked up and bandied about as if a new scientific and irrefutable truth has been discovered. The Grail, though, will perhaps always eschew definition. But why?

The Damsel of the Sanct Grael’ (1874) Dante Gabriel Rossetti. ( Public Domain )

The first known mention of a Grail (“un graal”) is made in a narrative spun by a 12th century writer of French romance, Chrétien de Troyes, who might reasonably be referred to as the Dan Brown of his day – though some scholars would argue that the quality of Chrétien’s writing far exceeds anything Brown has so far produced.

Chrétien’s Grail is mystical indeed – it is a dish, big and wide enough to take a salmon, that seems capable to delivering food and sustenance. To obtain the Grail requires asking a particular question at the Grail Castle. Unfortunately, the exact question (“Whom does the Grail serve?”) is only revealed after the Grail quester, the hapless Perceval, has missed the opportunity to ask it. It seems he is not quite ready, not quite mature enough, for the Grail.

The Holy Grail depicted as a dish in which Christ’s blood is collected. ( British Library )

But if this dish is the “first” Grail, then why do we now have so many possible Grails? Indeed, it is, at turns, depicted as the chalice of the Last Supper or of the Crucifixion or both, or as a stone containing the elixir of life , or even as the bloodline of Christ . And this list is hardly exhaustive. The reason most likely has to do with the fact that Chrétien appears to have died before completing his story, leaving the crucial questions as to what the Grail is and means tantalisingly unanswered. And it did not take long for others to try to answer them for him.

Robert de Boron, a poet writing within 20 or so years of Chrétien (circa 1190-1200), seems to have been the first to have associated the Grail with the cup of the Last Supper. In Robert’s prehistory of the object, Joseph of Arimathea took the Grail to the Crucifixion and used it to catch Christ’s blood. In the years that followed (1200-1230), anonymous writers of prose romances fixated upon the Last Supper’s Holy Chalice and made the Grail the subject of a quest by various knights of King Arthur’s court. In Germany, by contrast, the knight and poet Wolfram von Eschenbach reimagined the Grail as “Lapsit exillis” – an item more commonly referred to these days as the “Philosopher’s Stone”.

The Holy Grail depicted as a ciborium. ( British Library )

None of these is anything like Chrétien’s Grail, of course, so we can fairly ask: did medieval audiences have any more of a clue about the nature of the Holy Grail than we do today?

Publishing the Grail
My recent book delves into the medieval publishing history of the French romances that contain references to the Grail legend, asking questions about the narratives’ compilation into manuscript books. Sometimes, a given text will be bound alongside other types of texts, some of which seemingly have nothing to do with the Grail whatsoever. So, what sorts of texts do we find accompanying Grail narratives in medieval books? Can this tell us anything about what medieval audiences knew or understood of the Grail?

Sangreal. ( Arthur Rackham )

The picture is varied, but a broad chronological trend is possible to spot. Some of the few earliest manuscript books we still have see Grail narratives compiled alone, but a pattern quickly appears for including them into collected volumes. In these cases, Grail narratives can be found alongside historical, religious or other narrative (or fictional) texts. A picture emerges, therefore, of a Grail just as lacking in clear definition as that of today.

Perhaps the Grail served as a useful tool that could be deployed in all manner of contexts to help communicate the required message, whatever that message may have been. We still see this today, of course, such as when we use the phrase “The Holy Grail of…” to describe the practically unobtainable, but highly desirable prize in just about any area you can think of. There is even a guitar effect-pedal named “holy grail”.

Once the prose romances of the 13th century started to appear, though, the Grail took on a proper life of its own. Like a modern soap opera, these romances comprised vast reams of narrative threads, riddled with independent episodes and inconsistencies. They occupied entire books, often enormous and lavishly illustrated, and today these offer evidence that literature about the Grail evaded straightforward understanding and needed to be set apart – physically and figuratively. In other words, Grail literature had a distinctive quality – it was, as we might call it today, a genre in its own right.

 In the absence of clear definition, it is human nature to impose meaning. This is what happens with the Grail today and, according to the evidence of medieval book compilation, it is almost certainly what happened in the Middle Ages, too. Just as modern guitarists use their “holy grail” to experiment with all kinds of sounds, so medieval writers and publishers of romance used the Grail as an adaptable and creative instrument for conveying a particular message to their audience, the nature of which could be very different from one book to the next.

Whether the audience always understood that message, of course, is another matter entirely.

Artist’s interpretation of the holy grail. ( CC BY 2.0 )

 Top Image: The Achievement of the Grail. Source: Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery

 The article‘ What exactly is the Holy Grail – and why has its meaning eluded us for centuries? ’ by Leah Tether was originally published on The Conversation and has republished under a Creative Commons license.