Bringing a Bronze Age Face to Light: Face of the Greek Griffin Warrior

Ancient Origins

Researchers believe that a Bronze Age skeleton found near the Mycenaean palace of Nestor was once a handsome man with long black hair. Their reconstruction of his appearance was based on an analysis of his skull and an artifact recovered in his rich grave. This is just the latest in discoveries related to the burial of the so-called Griffin Warrior.

The facial reconstruction was one of the topics presented on October 6, 2016 at The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Greece. Themanews.com reports that the image of the Griffin warrior’s face was created by Lynne Schepartz and Tobias Houlton from the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa.
Schepartz and Houlton based their reconstruction on the man’s skull and a stamp which was found alongside his remains. Sharon R. Stocker, one of the University of Cincinnati archaeologists who unearthed the tomb in 2015, said the stamp provided an inspiration for the long black hair shown in the representation and “It seems he was a handsome man.” That stamp is one of the artifacts Stocker and the rest of the team will make public next year.

Some of the jewelry recovered from the grave. (Griffin Warrior Tomb)

The grave of the 30- 35-year-old warrior was discovered by Sharon Stocker and Jack Davis, another University of Cincinnati archaeologist, during their 2015 excavations at the Palace of Nestor on Greece’s Peloponnese peninsula. The man was buried in a shaft grave that measured 5 ft. (1.5 meters) deep, 4 ft. (1.2 meters) wide, and 8 ft. (2.4 meters) long.

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According to Themanews.com, the Griffin Warrior’s grave was intact except for the one-ton stone which had crushed the wooden coffin containing the man’s remains. When April Holloway wrote of the discovery for Ancient Origins she said that the unplundered tomb predates the palace of Nestor and contained many intriguing artifacts.

Looking inside the Griffin Warrior tomb, complete with the fallen stone. (Griffin Warrior Tomb)

Apart from his weapons - a bronze sword with a gold and ivory handle and a gold-hilted dagger, Holloway wrote that the archaeologists found “gold rings, an ornate string of pearls, 50 Minoan seal stones carved with imagery of goddesses, silver vases, gold cups, a bronze mirror, ivory combs, an ivory plaque carved with a griffin [from which the tomb received its name], and Minoan-style gold jewelry decorated with figures of deities, animals, and floral motifs.”

Artifacts within the grave. (Griffin Warrior Tomb)

The four gold rings which were found in the tomb also made the news recently for their magnificent craftsmanship and the tales that accompany their designs.
The rings were crafted with multiple sheets of gold by a skilled person who managed to create highly detailed Minoan iconography on the small artifacts. At first, it was believed that the rings and some of the other artifacts showing Minoan themes were loot from a raid of Crete, however further study suggests that they may be examples of Mycenaean-Minoan cultural transfer instead.

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As Jack Davis, told EurekAlert!:

“People have suggested that the findings in the grave are treasure, like Blackbeard's treasure, that was just buried along with the dead as impressive contraband. We think that already in this period the people on the mainland already understood much of the religious iconography on these rings, and they were already buying into religious concepts on the island of Crete. This isn't just loot […] it may be loot, but they're specifically selecting loot that transmits messages that are understandable to them.”

The researchers also said that “it is no coincidence that the Griffin Warrior was found buried with a bronze bull's head staff capped by prominent horns, which were likely a symbol of his power and authority.”

One of the four gold rings found in the tomb of the Griffin Warrior depicts a leaping bull. (Jennifer Stephens/University of Cincinnati)

Finally, Davis told the New York Times that they are uncertain if the warrior was buried by Minoans or Mycenaeans who had adopted elements of Minoan culture. He said, “Whoever they are, they are the people introducing Minoan ways to the mainland and forging Mycenaean culture. They were probably dressing like Minoans and building their houses according to styles used on Crete, using Minoan building techniques.”
Top Image: Facial Reconstruction of the so-called ‘Griffin Warrior.’ Source: Tornosnews
By Alicia McDermott

10 facts about Stonehenge

History Extra

 Built in several stages, Stonehenge began about 5,000 years ago as a simple earthwork enclosure where prehistoric people buried their cremated dead. The stone circle was erected in the centre of the monument in the late Neolithic period, around 2500 BC
• Two types of stone are used at Stonehenge: the larger sarsens, and the smaller bluestones. There are 83 stones in total
• There were originally only two entrances to the enclosure, English Heritage explains – a wide one to the north east, and a smaller one on the southern side. Today there are many more gaps – this is mainly the result of later tracks that once crossed the monument
• A circle of 56 pits, known as the Aubrey Holes (named after John Aubrey, who identified them in 1666), sits inside the enclosure. Its purpose remains unknown, but some believe the pits once held stones or posts
• The stone settings at Stonehenge were built at a time of “great change in prehistory,” says English Heritage, “just as new styles of ‘Beaker’ pottery and the knowledge of metalworking, together with a transition to the burial of individuals with grave goods, were arriving from Europe. From about 2400 BC, well furnished Beaker graves such as that of the Amesbury Arche are found nearby”
• Roman pottery, stone, metal items and coins have been found during various excavations at Stonehenge. An English Heritage report in 2010 said that considerably fewer medieval artefacts have been discovered, which suggests the site was used more sporadically during the period
• Stonehenge has a long relationship with astronomers, the report explains. In 1720, Dr Halley used magnetic deviation and the position of the rising sun to estimate the age of Stonehenge. He concluded the date was 460 BC. And, in 1771, John Smith mused that the estimated total of 30 sarsen stones multiplied by 12 astrological signs equalled 360 days of the year, while the inner circle represented the lunar month
• The first mention of Stonehenge – or ‘Stanenges’ – appears in the archaeological study of Henry of Huntingdon in about AD 1130, and that of Geoffrey of Monmouth six years later. In 1200 and 1250 it appeared as ‘Stanhenge’ and ‘Stonhenge’; as ‘Stonheng’ in 1297, and ‘the stone hengles’ in 1470. It became known as ‘Stonehenge’ in 1610, says English Heritage
• In the 1880s, after carrying out some of the first scientifically recorded excavations at the site, Charles Darwin concluded that earthworms were largely to blame for the Stonehenge stones sinking through the soil

• By the beginning of the 20th century there had been more than 10 recorded excavations, and the site was considered to be in a “sorry state”, says English Heritage – several sarsens were leaning. Consequently the Society of Antiquaries lobbied the site’s owner, Sir Edmond Antrobus, and offered to assist with conservation
To read more about Stonehenge, click here.

Decaying and Looted Pompeii Gets a Big Infusion of Care from the Italian Government

Pompeii, the city frozen in time by a super-hot gas cloud and ash that erupted from Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, has been placed under the protection of the Italian government from degradation by the elements and looters, including possibly the organized-crime group the Camorra. There are numerous restoration and construction projects underway, and the director of the site says it is an exciting time for Pompeii.
The restorations of the ancient city are being carried out with a 130 million euro ($143 million) budget that is also being spent on putting on exhibit plaster casts of some of the bodies of people frozen in their last moments of life as the gas cloud overwhelmed the city, after which it was buried in ash. The cultural and historical richness of the town cannot be overstated. Many artworks, statues, frescos and papyrus scrolls were preserved by the volcanic eruption that inundated the town, which had 2.7 million visitors in 2014.

The ancient city of Pompeii, Italy. (BigStockPhoto)

The United Nations had threatened to remove Pompeii from UNESCO's World Heritage Site status, but that threat appears to have been rescinded as the Italian government, under archeologist Massimo Osanna, who has turned around the project in two years.

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Degradation included damaged and fading mosaics and frescos on floors and walls of houses, buildings that were decaying and even falling apart and vandalism, said the World Socialist Web Site in 2012. The problems stemmed from over-exploitation for commercial use, bad archaeological methodology and restoration techniques and natural erosion.
“This is a really exciting time for Pompeii,” Osanna told AFP. “Thousands of people are working together. We currently have 35 construction areas on the site. “We have followed UNESCO’s advice to extend projects beyond the initial deadline of 2015. We have the resources and we will carry on working.”

A video of the 2015 restoration of the casts can be seen here:

In ancient times, Pompeii had a population of as many as 20,000 in its 163 acres (65 hectares), most but not all of which have been excavated. Pompeii is just south of Naples on the southeast Italian coast.
The exhibition of plaster casts of 20 victims of Mount Vesuvius' eruption are on display in a wooden pyramid in an ancient amphitheater through September 27, 2015. The people and some animals were carbonized by a gas cloud of 300 degrees C (572 degrees Fahrenheit). The actual bodies, which were ossified by the heat, will not go on display but rather the plaster casts that show the exact position the bodies were found in.
Pompeii was a flourishing Roman city from the 6th century BC until it became frozen in time, preserved by the layers of ash that spewed out from the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Although Pompeii was initially rediscovered at the end of the 16th century, it was only properly excavated in the 18th century.
Excavators were startled by the sexually explicit frescoes they were unearthing, quite shocking to the sensibilities of medieval citizens of Rome, so they quickly covered them over.

Raunchy frescoes uncovered in Pompeii. (BigStockPhoto)

When excavations resumed nearly two centuries later, archaeologists found the city almost entirely intact – loaves of bread still sat in the oven, bodies of men, women, children and pets were found frozen in their last moments, the expressions of fear still etched on their faces, and the remains of meals remained discarded on the pavement. The astounding discovery meant that researchers could piece together exactly what life was like for the ancient Romans of Pompeii – the food they ate, the jobs they performed and the houses they lived in.
The recent efforts  to restore the city of Pompeii are necessary and will help ensure that the story of the site remains available to future generations.
Featured Image: The bodies of about 20 victims of the volcanic eruption of 79 AD are on display through September 27, 2015, in an ancient amphitheater. (Photo by Mario Laporta of AFP)
By Mark Miller

Ancient Origins

Did defenders of castles really pour boiling oil down on attackers?

Siege towers and cannon can be seen in this depiction of the Siege of Orleans but no boiling oil

History Extra

Defenders facing death if their castle fell would have used whatever came to hand to drive off their enemies. History Revealed magazine investigates...

It is a common image that springs to mind when thinking of medieval warfare, and there is evidence that it was used to deter attackers. The Jewish defenders of Yodfat in AD 67 poured hot oil on the Roman besiegers, and heated oil is also mentioned as being used against the English at Orleans in 1428-29.
But oil was a valuable resource and it was probably too scarce to be anything other than an occasional weapon.
In fact, there was no shortage of other cheaper, and more plentiful, alternatives. Defenders would hurl down rocks, stones or even pieces of their own wall, or pour down boiling water or heated sand. Attackers might also be blinded with quicklime, a kind of medieval mustard gas that became caustic when it came in contact with anything wet.
They could be burned by Greek fire, a mixture of resin, pitch, sulphur and naptha, which was notoriously hard to extinguish. In 1216, the French defenders of Beaucaire Castle lowered a sack of burning sulphur, which drove off the attackers with its noxious fumes.
However the prize for ingenuity has to go to the defenders of Chester who, in 905, are said to have inflicted a stinging defeat on the Vikings by dropping the town’s beehives on them.

In a nutshell: the Dark Ages

History Extra

Historians are in the dark about a great swathe of western European history, for which there is limited written record. History Revealed magazine investigates...

What were the Dark Ages?
The Dark Ages is a widely-used expression that normally refers to the period after the collapse of the western half of the Roman Empire in AD 476. Modern historians don’t always like to use this phrase because of its negative connotations.
How did the expression come about?
It seems to have originated in the writings of Italian scholar Francesco Petrarch. He lived in the 14th century, when Greek and Roman learning were being rediscovered in Europe during the Renaissance. He wrote about the 'Dark Ages' to refer to the time between the light of classical culture and the renewed light of his own time. In subsequent centuries, writers continued to use Petrarch’s phrase, although the exact timespan could vary significantly. Generally, though, they were talking about the medieval period, particularly the years before AD 1000.
How do the Dark Ages fit into British history?
For Britain the Dark Ages began in AD 410, when Roman forces withdrew from the parts of the country they controlled, ending 350 years of occupation. There is no agreed date for the conclusion of the Dark Ages in Britain, but nowadays the phrase is often used to specifically describe the fifth and sixth centuries. That’s because our historical sources for those 200 years are so limited that it’s difficult to shine a light on the events that took place then.
Why are there so few sources for Britain at that time?
When Britain was under Roman rule, it was part of a literate, interconnected empire. However, after the Roman legions departed, they were replaced by groups of migrants and invaders from Germany and surrounding areas (the Anglo-Saxons, as we call them today) who were largely illiterate. This means we have just a handful of written accounts of this time - nothing like enough to draw a comprehensive picture, although archaeology has added to our knowledge.
So what do we know about Dark Age Britain?
From the limited evidence, it seems this was a period of change and turmoil. Once the Romans left, the country broke up into smaller territories where Romanised British elites continued to function for a while. The Anglo-Saxons arrived and began to establish themselves in what is now England, introducing their own pagan culture. Christianity, though, survived on the fringes of Britain and would return to England following a mission sent by the Pope in AD 597. Scotland, as in Wales and parts of south-west England, was not part of the Anglo-Saxon region and it was in these places that the original ‘British’ were able to cling on.
Where does King Arthur fit in?
He was a hero of the Dark Ages: a British leader fighting against the invading Anglo-Saxons in around the fifth century. Sadly, there is no clear evidence for him or his court at Camelot having existed at all. He is not even mentioned by name until a ninth-century history book and most of the modern legend is based on the 12th-century writings of Geoffrey of Monmouth. Although most of the stories surrounding the king are sure to be false, it is not impossible that they did have some basis in a real man, perhaps Ambrosius Aurelanius who is described, in one of the very few contemporary sources, as having battled the invaders.
Is it fair to describe the Dark Ages as ‘Dark’?
In terms of our lack of sources for this period it probably is, but it’s not true this was a time of backwardness. The western Roman Empire may have collapsed but classical knowledge was kept alive in the eastern half as well as in the Middle East. As for Britain, you only have to admire the amazing seventh-century artefacts, found at Sutton Hoo in 1939, to appreciate how advanced early Anglo-Saxon England must have been.

Mysterious Stone Carving May Contain Old Message

by Owen Jarus
Live Science

James Balme, an archaeologist and TV presenter, discovered this stone carving in a garden in Leicester, England, where it was up for sale as a garden ornament. He recognized it was no ordinary ornament and purchased it. Credit: James Balme View full size image

A weighty stone carved with a mysterious pattern that may be writing has been discovered in a garden in Leicester, England.
The hefty carving was up for sale as a garden ornament when archaeologist and TV presenter James Balme found it. The carving, which was very dirty, may have been plowed up many years ago, Balme said. Despite the carving's poor shape, he thought it was no ordinary ornament; so he purchased it and carefully cleaned it.
When he was done conserving it, Balme saw a stone carving with an extremely complex pattern that is difficult to describe. It's possible the "pattern carved may be some form of writing," Balme told Live Science in an email. The carving's use is unknown, though it could be "a keystone from an archway or indeed a vaulted ceiling," Balme said. [7 Most Mysterious Archaeological Finds on Earth]

The carving, which weighs between 55 and 65 pounds (25 and 30 kilograms), appears to be made out of a hard form of sandstone, Balme said. It's wide at its base but get narrower toward the top. It stands about 18 inches (46 centimeters) high and is 5.5 inches (14 cm) thick. Its decorations are entirely on the front face "although it does have many chisel marks on the sides and back," he said.

The carving, shown here after it was restored, may date back to the Anglo-Saxon period, between the fifth and 11th centuries A.D.
Credit: James Balme

View full size image

The date of the carving is uncertain. Balme says that it may date to the Anglo-Saxon period, which started in 410 when the Roman Empire abandoned Britain, and lasted until 1066, when a group called the Normans, led by William the Conqueror, invaded England.
During the Anglo-Saxon period several different groups migrated to England. These people created fine works of art such as complex stone carvings, some of which survive today. Literature also flourished at this time, the poem "Beowulf" being one of the most famous works from this period.
Although an Anglo-Saxon date for the stone carving is a distinct possibility, Balme cannot be certain. Questions also remain as to what exactly the carving was used for and whether the pattern may represent some form of writing. Balme has taken to Twitter, seeking help to unravel the carving's mysteries.
Garden ornament archaeology

Photo enhancement of the carving sheds more light on the pattern and Balme wonders if this could be some form of writing.
Credit: James Balme

View full size image

"Garden ornament" may conjure up images of tacky gnomes or other modern-day items. However, over the past few years archaeologists studying garden ornaments have made several interesting discoveries. In 2009, the BBC reported on a garden ornament in Dorset that turned out to be an ancient Egyptian terracotta vase.
Another, more spectacular, example of garden ornament archaeology comes from the modern-day town of Migdal located near the Sea of Galilee in Israel. A team of archaeologists studied ancient architectural remains in Migdal that were being reused as garden ornaments or chairs. These remains aided them in discovering an ancient town, which would have flourished at the time of Christ.
So the next time you see an old garden ornament that seems out of place, remember, you may be looking at an interesting piece of history.

Ancient Roman skulls found in underground London construction site

People have lived in London for more than 2,000 years and every now and then there is a reminder of just how old the capital city is. For example, construction workers for Crossrail were building a utility tunnel at Liverpool Street station recently, when they came across something unexpected - 20 Roman skulls. Initially, it was thought the remains were the decapitated heads of Queen Boudicca's rebels, who fought against the Roman occupation 1,900 years ago.

However, later archaeology suggested that the River Walbrook possibly eroded a Roman cemetery under Eldon Street, and the skulls had been washed downstream. The skulls were located in clusters, indicating they were caught in a bend in the river. Their location also indicates they were washed out of the burial ground during Roman times.

The Museum of London Archaeology is now analysing the finds, hoping to find out more about the age, sex and diet of these people of the past. Since Crossrail construction began in 2009, more than 10,000 items, spanning more than 55 million years of London's history, have been discovered. Report by Mark Morris.