The destruction of the Great Library of Alexandria

Ancient Origins

Alexandria, one of the greatest cities of the ancient world, was founded by Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt in 332 BC. After the death of Alexander in Babylon in 323 BC, Egypt fell to the lot of one of his lieutenants, Ptolemy. It was under Ptolemy that the newly-founded Alexandria came to replace the ancient city of Memphis as the capital of Egypt. This marked the beginning of the rise of Alexandria. Yet, no dynasty can survive for long without the support of their subjects, and the Ptolemies were keenly aware of this. Thus, the early Ptolemaic kings sought to legitimize their rule through a variety of ways, including assuming the role of pharaoh, founding the Graeco-Roman cult of Serapis, and becoming the patrons of scholarship and learning (a good way to show off one’s wealth, by the way). It was this patronage that resulted in the creation of the great Library of Alexandria by Ptolemy. Over the centuries, the Library of Alexandria was one of the largest and most significant libraries in the ancient world. The great thinkers of the age, scientists, mathematicians, poets from all civilizations came to study and exchange ideas. As many as 700,000 scrolls filled the shelves. However, in one of the greatest tragedies of the academic world, the Library became lost to history and scholars are still not able to agree on how it was destroyed.

An artist’s depiction of the Library of Alexandria. Image source.

Perhaps one of the most interesting accounts of its destruction comes from the accounts of the Roman writers. According to several authors, the Library of Alexandria was accidentally destroyed by Julius Caesar during the siege of Alexandria in 48 BC. Plutarch, for instance, provides this account:

when the enemy tried to cut off his (Julius Caesar’s) fleet, he was forced to repel the danger by using fire, and this spread from the dockyards and destroyed the great library. (Plutarch, The Life of Julius Caesar, 49.6)

This account is dubious, however, as the Musaeum (or Mouseion) at Alexandria, which was right next to the library was unharmed, as it was mentioned by the geographer Strabo about 30 years after Caesar’s siege of Alexandria. Nevertheless, Strabo does not mention the Library of Alexandria itself, thereby supporting the claim that Caesar was responsible for burning it down. However, as the Library was attached to the Musaeum, and Strabo did mention the latter, it is possible that the library was still in existence during Strabo’s time. The omission of the library can perhaps be attributed either to the possibility that Strabo felt no need to mention the library, as he had already mentioned the Musaeum, or that the library was no longer the centre of scholarship that it once was (the idea of ‘budget cuts’ seems increasingly probable). In addition, it has been suggested that it was not the library, but the warehouses near the port, which stored manuscripts, that was destroyed by Caesar’s fire.

The second possible culprit would be the Christians of the 4th century AD. In 391 AD, the Emperor Theodosius issued a decree that officially outlawed pagan practices. Thus, the Serapeum or Temple of Serapis in Alexandria was destroyed. However, this was not the Library of Alexandria, or for that matter, a library of any sort. Furthermore, no ancient sources mention the destruction of any library at this time at all. Hence, there is no evidence that the Christians of the 4th century destroyed the Library of Alexandria.

The last possible perpetrator of this crime would be the Muslim Caliph, Omar. According to this story, a certain “John Grammaticus” (490–570) asks Amr, the victorious Muslim general, for the “books in the royal library." Amr writes to the Omar for instructions and Omar replies: "If those books are in agreement with the Quran, we have no need of them; and if these are opposed to the Quran, destroy them.” There are at least two problems with this story. Firstly, there is no mention of any library, only books. Secondly, this was written by a Syrian Christian writer, and may have been invented to tarnish the image of Omar.

Unfortunately, archaeology has not been able to contribute much to this mystery. For a start, papyri have rarely been found in Alexandria, possibly due to the climatic condition, which is unfavourable for the preservation of organic material. Secondly, the remains of the Library of Alexandria itself have not been discovered. This is due to the fact that Alexandria is still inhabited by people today and only salvage excavations are allowed to be carried out by archaeologists.

While it may be convenient to blame one man or group of people for the destruction of what many consider to be the greatest library in the ancient world, it may be over-simplifying the matter. The library may not have gone up in flames at all, but rather could have been gradually abandoned over time. If the Library was created for the display of Ptolemaic wealth, then its decline could also have been linked to an economic decline. As Ptolemaic Egypt gradually declined over the centuries, this may have also had an effect on the state of the Library of Alexandria. If the Library did survive into the first few centuries AD, its golden days would have been in the past, as Rome became the new centre of the world.

Featured image: One of the theories suggests that Library of Alexandria was burned down. ‘The Burning of the Library of Alexandria’, by Hermann Goll (1876).

 By Ḏḥwty

Three Roman Shipwrecks with Hoard of Treasures Discovered in Alexandria

Ancient Origins

A team of archaeologists in Egypt has recently announced the discovery of three underwater shipwrecks full of treasure and other valuable objects that date back to the Roman Era in Abu Qir Bay, Alexandria.

Three Impressive Underwater Shipwrecks Uncovered
 The three shipwrecks were unearthed during excavations in the Mediterranean Sea carried out by the European Institute of Underwater Archaeology and the Supreme Council of Antiquities, as Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, Mostafa al-Waziry, announced. According to Egypt Independent, Waziry added in a press statement that the archaeological mission also discovered a Roman head carved in crystal that could possibly belong to the commander of the Roman armies of “Antonio”, in addition to three gold coins dating back to the Emperor “Octavius”. The discoveries took place at the coast of the northern city of Alexandria, specifically in its Abu Qir Bay.

The carved crystal head that was found at the site of the wrecks. (Image: Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities)

Pharos of Alexandria: Idealized representation of the Bay of Alexandria. (Public Domain )

Alexandria’s Vast Underwater Treasures
Alexandria, located on the Mediterranean coast in Egypt, has seen many changes in its 2,300 year history. Founded by Greek general Alexander the Great in 331 BC, at its height it rivalled Rome in its wealth and size, and was the seat for the Ptolemaic dynasty. However, through history not all agreed on how to regard the Hellenistic city with a royal Egyptian past. An underwater temple discovered by marine divers off the eastern coast shed light on the pharaonic nature of ancient Alexandria.

As previously reported in Ancient Origins, Ptolemaic Alexandria has been regarded, in academic circles, not as part of Egypt, but as a separate Greek polis, or city-state, by the borders of Egypt. However, in 1998, an important archaeological discovery was made in Alexandria which confirmed the pharaonic nature of Egyptian Alexandria. Under the heading “Sea gives up Cleopatra’s treasures”, the London Sunday Times reported the story on 25 October 1998: “Secrets of Cleopatra’s fabled royal palace, in which she wooed Julius Caesar, have been retrieved from beneath the waves of the Mediterranean sea, where they have lain for more than 1,600 years.” This remarkable discovery came about after the European Institute of Underwater Archaeology (IEASM) had been given permission in the 1990s to work in the east part of the Eastern Harbor, where the Ptolemaic royal quarter was situated.

After some years of mapping and searching the area, Frank Goddio, the French leader of the underwater team of archaeologists, was able to announce before the end of 1998 that he had discovered the royal palace of Cleopatra (51-30 BC), the last of the Ptolemaic rulers.

Ancient Egyptian statues found beneath the waves of Alexandria's Eastern Harbor. (Credit: The Hilti Foundation)

Goddio’s divers found marble floors on the seabed which he believes established for the first time the precise location of Cleopatra’s palace. They also found lumps of red granite and broken columns on the submerged island of Antirhodos, which provided Goddio with further evidence of the site of the royal quarters. Remains of Cleopatra’s royal palace were retrieved from beneath the waters of the Mediterranean Sea where they had disappeared for 17 centuries. The divers reported seeing columns and capitals in disorder, kilns and basins - some of which were described as the so-called ‘Baths of Cleopatra’; great blocks of dressed limestone, statues of Egyptian divinities, and even walls.

One of the Roman coins found in the shipwrecks (Image: Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities)

Fourth Shipwreck May be Unearthed Soon
Almost two decades later, Alexandria keeps delivering extremely significant archaeological treasures and will most likely continue to do so for many years to come. Dr. Osama Alnahas, Head of the Central Department of the Underwater Antiquities, stated as Egypt Independent reported, that the initial excavations indicate that a fourth shipwreck remains could be unearthed very soon. According to Dr. Alnahas the team has unearthed large wooden planks, as well as pieces of pottery vessels that most likely represent the ships’ hull and cargo.

Dr. Ayman Ashmawy, Head of the Ancient Egyptian Antiquities Sector, informed the press that the archaeological team launched its excavation works last September. Ultimately, Egypt Independent reports that underwater exploration by both projects have included a research of the soil in both the eastern port and the Abu Qir Bay, underwater excavations at the Heraklion sunken city in Abu Qir Bay which includes the discovery of a votive bark of the god Osiris, as well as the completion of the conservation and documentation works.

Top image: Sunken ships, statues and treasure have been found under water at in bay near Alexandria. (Image: Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities)

By Theodoros Karasavvas

Ancient Sunken Cities and Artifacts to be revealed with Ambitious Underwater Museum in Egypt

Ancient Origins

Ancient sunken treasures hidden for thousands of years will be revealed in an underwater antiquity museum, the first of its kind, set for the history-rich Bay of Alexandria in Egypt.
The ambitious project put forth by the Ministry of Antiquities is set to allow visitors to experience the submerged ruins of ancient Alexandria, including some stonework and artifacts dating back to 365 AD.

Visit Lost Underwater Sites Firsthand

Youssef Khalifa, chairman of the Central Administration of Lower Egypt Antiquities, told news website Al-Monitor that the museum is planned to be partially submerged in the Bay of Alexandria, on the Mediterranean coast in Egypt.
Khalifa said museum is planned to feature an above-water building showcasing relics that have been recovered from the sea, as well as an underwater section leading visitors down into the water, to walk along the bay floor some seven meters (23 feet) deep and see the submerged antiquities.

“Visitors will be able to see the relics either by diving or walking inside underwater tunnels.  There will also be glass submarines taking tourists on a tour inside the museum,” said Khalifa.

French architect Jacques Rougerie is behind the proposed design of the compelling architecture, including fiberglass tunnels connecting waterfront galleries to underwater viewing chambers, reports WebUrbanist. The design will allow visitors to experience the ancient ruins in context.

Design of the proposed underwater museum of Alexandria. Image Credit: © UNESCO/Rougerie

• Egyptian Alexandria - Ancient underwater finds revealed the Pharaonic roots of the Ptolemaic City
• Ancient Wonder of the World: Egypt Approves Plan to Rebuild Pharos of Alexandria
• Precious Treasures from Ancient Heracleion to be Revealed

Additionally, “the museum will include four tall underwater buildings in the form of Nile boats connected to one another over an area of 22,000 square meters (5.4 acres). They will be lined up in a circle with a radius of 40 meters (131 feet). The museum will accommodate 3 million visitors a year,” Khalifa told AlMonitor.

Underwater Museum of Alexandria, Egypt featuring Architect Jacques Rougerie (2009) [French language].

Research and construction plans, originally proposed in 2008, were delayed with regional political strife. UNESCO sent an international scientific advisory committee to assist with a feasibility study, but the proposal was put on indefinite hold during the January 2011 revolution in Egypt. Those involved with the project believe the time is now right to revive the exciting plans for the underwater museum.

Sunken Ancient History Revealed

The underwater heritage of Alexandria Bay is protected by UNESCO conventions. The 270,000 square foot area includes invaluable sites such as Pharos, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, and Cleopatra’s palace, found in the submerged ancient ruins of Thonis-Heracleion, which plunged into the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Egypt nearly 1,200 years ago.

Pharaohs of Alexandria: Idealized representation of the Bay of Alexandria. (Public Domain)

During the middle ages earthquakes caused much of the land to fall beneath the sea, where it lay hidden for ages.

Lighthouse remains found in the Mediterranean Sea. (CC BY-SA 3.0)

• Spectacular Photographs Reveal Beauty of the Lost City of Heracleion
• Ten incredible underwater discoveries that have captured our imagination
• Oath of Silence Protects Amazing 500-Year-Old Diving Bell Used to Visit Sunken Roman Vessels

Protection and Preservation

Other underwater archaeological sites, such as those submerged in waters in China, Turkey and Mexico, highlight contemporary sculpture in a marine environment for groups of divers. This self-contained, glass-walled, underwater museum featuring sunken ancient relics, however, will be the world’s first.
Not only will the Alexandria sub-marine museum allow the public to experience first-hand the ancient history of the region, but an underwater presence and watchful eyes will further protect the antiquities from thieves. Underwater looting is a real problem, but it is fortunately less easily accomplished than antiquity theft on land.
The project’s estimated cost is $150 million.
Beyond highlighting and preserving almost 2,000 years of regional history, Youssef Khalifa listed the additional benefits of the intended museum saying, “The museum will reshape the Arab region, as it will be the first of its kind in the world. Undoubtedly it will revive tourism and boost the Egyptian economy after a long recession.”
Featured Image: The ambitious proposed design of the planned underwater antiquity museum set for the Bay of Alexandria, Egypt. Image Credit: © UNESCO/Rougerie
By: Liz Leafloor   

History Trivia - Bonnie Prince Charlie enters Edinburgh

Sept 17

 530 Boniface II was selected Pope. He was by birth an Ostrogoth, the first Germanic pope, and he owed his appointment to the influence of the Gothic king Athalaric. Boniface was chosen by his predecessor, Pope Felix IV, who had been a strong adherent of the Arian king, and was never elected. Boniface had for some time an antipope, Dioscurus, who had been elected by most of the priests of Rome. Boniface and Dioscorus were both consecrated in Rome on 22 September 530, but Dioscurus died twenty-two days later.

642 Arabs conquered Alexandria, destroying the library. 

1745 Jacobite leader Bonnie Prince Charlie entered Edinburgh, proclaiming his father James VIII of Scotland.

History Trivia - Octavian enters Alexandria, Egypt,

August 1

30 BC – Octavian (later known as Augustus) entered Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Republic.

10 BC, Claudius I, Emperor of Rome AD 41-54 was born. He built Rome's harbor at Ostia and conquered parts of England and Thrace (the Balkins).

 1086 - Results of the Domesday inquiry presented to William the Conqueror in Salisbury (the date of compilation and the Great Domesday are historically contestable).

History Trivia - Temple of Artemis in Ephesus destroyed

July 21

 356 BC The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, was destroyed by arson.

 365 A tsunami devastated the city of Alexandria, Egypt. The tsunami was caused by an earthquake estimated to be 8.0 on the Richter Scale. 5,000 people perished in Alexandria, and 45,000 more died outside the city.

1403 Battle of Shrewsbury: King Henry IV of England defeated rebels to the north of the county town of Shropshire, England.

History Trivia - Library at Alexandria destroyed

Sept 17

530 Boniface II was selected Pope. He was by birth an Ostrogoth, the first Germanic pope, and he owed his appointment to the influence of the Gothic king Athalaric. Boniface was chosen by his predecessor, Pope Felix IV, who had been a strong adherent of the Arian king, and was never elected. Boniface had for some time an antipope, Dioscurus, who had been elected by most of the priests of Rome. Boniface and Dioscorus were both consecrated in Rome on 22 September 530, but Dioscurus died twenty-two days later.

 642 Arabs conquered Alexandria, destroying the library.

1745 Jacobite leader Bonnie Prince Charlie entered Edinburgh, proclaiming his father James VIII of Scotland.

History Trivia - The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus destroyed by arson

July 21

 356 BC The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, was destroyed by arson.

 365 A tsunami devastated the city of Alexandria, Egypt. The tsunami was caused by an earthquake estimated to be 8.0 on the Richter Scale. 5,000 people perished in Alexandria, and 45,000 more died outside the city.

1403 Battle of Shrewsbury: King Henry IV of England defeated rebels to the north of the county town of Shropshire, England.

1545 The first landing of French troops on the coast of the Isle of Wight during the French invasion of the Isle of Wight.

1588 The Armada - an invasion fleet sent by Philip II of Spain - was sighted off the coast of Cornwall.

History Trivia - Lincoln Cathedral, one of the most important medieval cathedrals in England, is consecrated.

May 9

 1457 BC Battle of Megiddo between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of Kadesh.  It was the first battle to have been recorded in what is accepted as relatively reliable detail. 

328 Athanasius was elected Patriarch bishop of Alexandria.

1092 Lincoln Cathedral, one of the most important medieval cathedrals in England, was consecrated.

1386 England and Portugal signed the Treaty of Windsor, the oldest alliance in Europe still in force.

1671 The crown jewels were briefly stolen from the Tower of London by Irish adventurer Colonel Thomas Blood.